Smart drugs are everywhere. Face runs a story on them, Time puts them on the cover and CNN does the special report on latest findings. And on top of it all your favourite new rave publication tells you how to use them. Delve deeper...

Why 'smart' and even more, why 'drugs'?

For starters let's get a few things straight: Some pharmaceuticals are called 'smart drugs' because of their ability to enhance brain's functions, not because they're smart genetic drugs or nanorobots. Smart drugs aren't addictive either (not in the physical sense anyway) and some of the stuff is not even medicine (see Smart Nutrients). So, whoever thought of this wonderful term must have been on a heavy dose of 'dumb drugs' as the name is about as informative as a road sign to a native Zulu warrior. A better word for chemicals that can boost your brain performance would be nootropics (from Greek, 'acting on the mind'), but as it's not nearly as catchy or marketable we're stuck with 'smart drugs' for now.

Many a drug can be labelled a smart drug and the current number of such pharmaceuticals is now more than fifty. Most of these pharmaceuticals were originally used to treat a disease such as dementia or for something completely different than brain enhancing, like controlling your bladder. Even though studies these drugs and their effects have been available for over a decade now their use among healthy individuals has not been widespread. Some of the pioneers of the field, Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw, have been promoting smart drugs since the seventies, but the movement didn't become a bandwagon until the late 80's. Since then at least four popular books have been published on the subject, scientific research interest has escalated and mail order firms have been popping up by the dozen. And the wagon rolls forward: the authors of Smart Drugs II forecast that the smart drugs will become a billion dollar business in the 90's.

This article will help you to wade through some of the misinformation that is scattered around this considerably young field and provide you with a chance to get a head start with smart drugs. After all, who wouldn't want to think, feel and remember better all for the price of few bucks.

A very short introduction to your brain

Smart drugs can basically do three different things to your brain: either minimise the damage to the brain and the natural deterioration of one's brain functions, repair some of the damage already done or enhance brain functions above usual levels. Human nervous system deteriorates with age through natural ageing process and sometimes due to drinking or smoking. This deterioration is usually caused by an oxidation process, which destroys brain cells and form free radicals that cause further havoc in one's brain. Even though brain cells likely cannot regenerate, it is possible to deactivate free radicals and repair some of the other damage (such as low levels of electric current transmitting chemicals in the brain). And this is can be achieved with smart drugs and some nutrients, such as vitamins.

It is also possible to enhance the brain's natural properties with smart drugs by helping the brain to build new connections. Neurones (brain cells) are connected to thousands of other neurones, which together form a huge neural net. The more connections you have the easier it is for one neurone to send information to another neurone, thus the better your brain works. It is possible to help the brain to grow more of these connections by taking smart drugs. As these connections are formed when new memories formed, one can actually memorise and learn new things easier if a chemical is there to help your neurones to connect. Smart drugs can also enhance one's mental functions by feeding the brain with more oxygen or increasing the levels of neurotransmitting chemicals that carry electric signals from a neurone to another. The whole picture of neurochemistry is a lot more complex than pictured here, but this is as scientific as this article is going to get. So if you want more information on how the brain works and what is it exactly that smart drugs do, you might try reading Brain Boosters for a basic explanation or a good book on neurochemistry for a more profound explanation.

The great smart drugs debate

It's all terribly mind boggling to know that one's brain is working more efficiently (while actually wearing out less) while on smart drugs, but what does it all mean in practise? Will you be able to memorise the whole R&S discography in 20 seconds or calculate cube roots in a snap? No you will not. Even though memory enhancement can be significant in some cases, the reality is often far less glorious. People report effects ranging from: "It changed my life" to "I got a funny sort of buzz out of them", but not all of the effects are scientifically validated. Although the process of how neurochemicals and smart drugs work is somewhat agreed upon, scientists haven't agreed on whether smart drugs really are effective in healthy people. Many of the test have been done with animals and with mentally dysfunctional patients (esp. those suffering from dementia or Parkinson's disease), but studies on healthy adults also exists. For example, a double blind study on late-middle-aged test subjects showed increase in mental functions after four weeks of taking Piracetam. Studies showing benefits from other drugs in normal test subjects also exist (Smart Drugs II, p. 61).

Still many researchers and doctors are willing to claim all of the above bogus and encourage people not to self-medicate themselves. But if we keep in mind that the earth was once flat and that even scientists do make mistakes, we might as well look into these drugs and their supposed effects. After all some of these drugs are so cheap and safe that trying them out for yourself might not be a bad idea at all.

What brain boosting substances are there?

Smart drugs are basically of three different variety: drugs, nutrients & herbs. One would think that the definition is clear as anybody can tell an aspirin from a hot dog, but that's not the case really. Many nutrients are classified as drugs when they are potent enough and in some cultures the difference between a medicine (usually synthetic) and a herb (natural) is very hazy. But all of this doesn't really matter that much, if you know the effects, correct dosage and precautions about each product. When you know these things you can quite safely take some of these substances on your own. It is advisable to contact a doctor before starting medicating yourself, even though open-minded and knowledgeable doctors may be hard to find.

Smart Drugs

Piracetam (aka Avigilen, Cerebroforte, Cerebrospan, Cetam, Dinagen, Encefalux, Encetrop, Euvifor, Gabacet, Genogris, Meo-Puren, Nootron, Nootropil, Normabrain, Norzetam, Novocetam, Pirrozil, Psycoton, Stimucortex and UCB-6215)

The most common smart drug out there is probably Piracetam, probably because it's not the most recent, it has a wide variety of uses and is quite inexpensive. It is used to treat several illnesses, like alcoholism, dementia and stroke, but should also improve memory and learning in healthy humans. It is supposed to increase the flow of information between the right and left hemispheres of the brain, thus helping in creative problem solving. It is sold as pills and the effective dose is 2400-4800 mg in three divided doses (Smart Drugs & Nutrients, p. 43), although some sources report significantly smaller dosages ranging from 800 mg to 2400 mg (Brain Boosters, p. 97). It has no know serious side effects, although insomnia, headaches, nausea and stomach disturbances are possible. As with any other smart drug it is the best to try and find out the dose that is good for you while keeping in mind the possible toxicity of the drug (Piracetam has no know toxicity meaning that one probably can't overdose it). Piracetam has a synergistic effect with DMAE, centrophenoxine, choline and Hydergine, which means that the effects of Piracetam are amplified when taken at the same time with these drugs. Piracetam is a prescription only drug in many countries, but is widely available via mail-order (see Mail Order).

Hydergine (Circanol, Coristin, D-Ergotox forte, L.U.T., Dacoren, Deapril-ST, Decme, Decril, Defluina, DHE, DHET, dihydroergotoxine, Dulcion, Enirant, Ergodesit, Ergohydrin, ergoloid mesylates, Ergoplus, Insibrin, Nehydrin, Novofluen, Orphol, Perenan, Progeril, Redergin, Simactil, Sponsin, Trigot and Unergol)

Another well known smart drug is Hydergine, which is used to treat senility. It is also supposed to increase intelligence, memory and recall, and prevent various type of brain deterioration. Furthermore it is supposed to repair some of the damage done by free radicals. One of the strongest effects Hydergine has is it's ability to prevent damage to the brain caused by too little oxygen and therefor it is used as an emergency treatment for stroke patients. Known side-effects are mild nausea, dizziness and headaches, but Hydergine is considered virtually non-toxic. A danger of adverse reactions still exists at very high doses and people suffering from psychosis should not use it. An effective dose can be anything from 3 mg to 9 mg, even though doses as high as 12 mg have been tried on healthy humans with no side-effects. Hydergine pills range usually from 1 mg to 5 mg per pill. It is notable that the daily dose should be divided to three equal doses and that the effects may not be noticeable until after several months of use (unless a high dosage is taken). The legal status of Hydergine is similar to that of Piracetam.

Vasopressin (Diapid, LVP, Lypressin, Postacton, Syntopressin, Adiuretin, SD, DAV Ritter, DDAVP, Desmopressin, Desmospray, Minirin and AVP)

Another prescription drug called Diapid (a trade name for Vasopressin) is widely known for its nootropic effects. Diapid is a brain hormone that is naturally present in your body and which helps in learning new information. It has been used to treat a form of diabetes, because it reduces the need to urinate. It has also been used to treat several conditions leading to memory impairment. Vasopressin is taken in the form of a nasal spray - 2 to four sniffs three times a day. Its effects are imminent and noticeable; clear headed feeling and increased attention are among reported effects. It is usually sold in c. 12 ml bottles and runs out very quickly if used continuously. Continuous use is also discouraged, because it may cause headaches, nose irritation or abdominal cramps. People with diagnosed hypertension or cardiovascular problems should also proceed with caution (if you don't know what these mean, ask a doctor first). After all this, it might be odd to say that Vasopressin is a generally safe drug, but it is just that. One has to keep in mind that milk or even wheat can produce unfortunate symptoms in a single individual even though most of the people in Europe consume them daily. Vasopressin is a prescription drug and available in many countries (see Mail Order for non-prescription orders).

Centrophenoxine (Lucidril)

Centrophenoxine is know for its anti-ageing effect (increases the life-span up to 30% in laboratory animals) and for its intelligence boosting properties. It clears out cellular waste product called liposfucin that prevents the normal functioning of neurones. When taken (usually as pills) it breaks down to DMAE in your blood. The effects of these two drugs are believed to be very similar. A suggested dosage is anything between 1000 and 3000 mg daily, although the dose should be reduced if side effects occur (excitability, muscle stiffness or headaches). Nursing mother should not use Centrophenoxine (Smart Drugs & Nutrients, p. 77) as it's safety for infants hasn't been determined. Although Centrophenoxine is not sold in the US, DMAE is widely available from health food stores and pharmacists (see DMAE for more information). In Europe Centrophenoxine is a prescription drug and DMAE is less common.

DMAE (Dimethylaminoethanol)

Also known as a drug under the name Deanol-Riker in Europe and widely available as a nutritional supplement in the US. DMAE increases intelligence, memory, energy levels and learning, extends the life span and even elevates mood. Its effects are usually noticeable within half an hour after ingestion (more quickly when taken as a liquid) and continue for a few hours. Some people have reported a build up of tolerance to DMAE after several weeks of use. If tolerance builds up it can be handled by discontinuing the use for a few weeks. Adverse contraindications are rare, but minor side effects include muscle tension or hypertension. Overdosing may cause insomnia or dull-headedness, so it is better to start with a low dose first. A suggested dose is from 300 mg up to 1000 mg daily in two divided doses (usually morning and afternoon). Determining the correct dose should be easy: just start with a low enough dose and gradually build up until you notice no improvement. It is important to notice that DMAE may cause the opposite of the desired effect (dull-headedness) when overdosed. So this time its up to you whether this drug is a smart or a dumb one. One common misconception about DMAE is that its like caffeine, which it is not. DMAE does not cause nervousness nor depression and is a much safer and better general purpose stimulant than coffee.

Smart nutrients

Antioxidants

There are several vitamins that are classified as antioxidants, namely vitamin E, C and A (beta-carotene). Reported benefits from antioxidants are anti-ageing effects and protection from damage to brain cells. Recommended dosages vary greatly, but here's general dosage suggestion: water soluble vitamin E (100-500 IU daily), Vitamin C (200-500 mg daily) and beta-carotene (25 000 - 30 000 IU daily). Note that Vitamin A is toxic even if not lethal when overdosed, so taking beta-carotene (which your body turns into vitamin A) instead is recommended. Pregnant women should not supplement with vitamin A (nor beta-carotene) unless prescribed by a doctor. All of these should be readily available at your local pharmacist.

B vitamins

There are twelve different B vitamins, of which four have been shown to have positive effects on the nervous system. Thiamine (vitamin B1) is also considered an antioxidant and the recommended dosage is between 25 and 150 mg daily although some sources report doses as high as 1 000 mg (Smart Drugs & Nutrients, p. 131).

Niacin (B3) helps to improve memory and to combat stress. Recommended dosage is 100-200 mg daily taken with an antacid (e.g. bicarbonate of soda). Doses exceeding 50 mg may first cause flushing i.e. a feeling of blood rushing to the head. Some people have also reported itching as a side-effect. These effects should go away after continued use.

Pyridoxine (B6) helps your brain to manufacture neurotransmitters and as such is vital for your brain to function properly. It has also shown to increase life-span and to decrease stress. Recommended dosage is 50-100 mg daily. Doses over 125 mg can be neurotoxic over longer periods of time and should be avoided. B6 is the only vitamin of these four B vitamins that has been know to be toxic.

Cyanocobalamin (B12) is useful when fighting fatigue as it helps the release of energy from food. It has also been show to increase learning in laboratory animals. A daily amount of 100-200 mcg is suggested along with 400 mcg of folic acid. All of these vitamins are best taken as a B-complex, so that supplementing one type of vitamin B will not cause a deficiency of another type. Available at the pharmacist.

Choline and Lecithin

Lecithin and choline are precursors of asetylcholine (they are turned into asetylcholine in your body) which transmits electric impulses in your brain. They have been show to improve short term memory in normal humans. Both of the nutrients offer basically the same benefits, although you can get away with taking smaller amounts of choline as all of lecithin is not transformed into asetylcholine. Suggested intake is 3 grams of choline four times a day (that means 12 grams/day) and a bit more for lecithin in two doses. Both should be taken with a large amounts of B5 (c. 1 gram per dose) to help the conversion to asetylcholine. Choline can cause a fishy odour (which is not dangerous, unless you're in a crucial part of your relationship) that can be avoided by eating yoghurt. In large doses it can also cause diarrhoea, which is a sure sign to cut down the dosage. Both can be bought at health food stores as liquid or as capsules. Both should be stored in your fridge in an airtight container.

Amino acids

Although the use of amino acids are usually attributed to body builders, some of the aminos are generally known as smart nutrients also. They are essential in building neurotransmitters in your brain and low levels of amino acids in one's diet can result in tiredness and lack of concentration. Supplementing them should be considered especially if one is a vegetarian on a low fat diet (low fat diet is sometimes missing in proteins). Phenylalanine is the most common of brain boosting amino acids; it will help one to fight off stress and it may also elevate one's mood and increase alertness. A compound called DL-phenylalaninen taken daily at the dose of 1 000 to 1 500 mg should be enough, followed by 50mg of vitamin B5 and half a gram of vitamin C. Phenylalanine is best taken on an empty stomach, because it competes with proteins to cross the blood brain barrier. A word of precaution: if you're psychotic or taking MAO-inhibitor drugs (such as Deprenyl) you should not use phenylalanine.
NB! As phenylalanine competes with tryptophan (a protein) in crossing the blood brain barrier these substances should not be taken together. If phenylalanine prevents tryptophan from crossing the blood brain barrier, then you may end up with lower serotonin levels, which in severe cases can lead to depression and aggressiveness. Foods rich in L-tryptophan include: Cottage cheese, milk, meat, fish, turkey, bananas, dried dates, peanuts or generally all foods rich in protein. Avoid taking phenylalanine with these foods. Take on an empty stomach. There now, I've said it three times :) [Added 9.7.1996. Thanks to S.R.S. for excellent comments]

There are also several other amino acids, such as Glutamine, Arginine, Tryptophan and Taurine, but as the safety and usefulness of all these have not been settled. In the early 90's there was a nasty case of contaminated tryptophan supplement resulting in the death of several people, causing FDA to ban tryptophan supplements. This does not mean that tryptophan cannot be safe, it's just that currently it's not available as a supplement in USA and most other countries (at least not without a prescription). Only future research will show their ability as safe nootropics and until then it is wiser to settle for other types of supplements. There's plenty to choose from after all.

Herbs

Herbs are probably the most controversial brain boosters in the sense that they have little scientific backup for their claimed effects. Although people in the medical profession may not deny the power of herbs altogether they usually will not recommend them unless the active ingredient in the herb is known along with its effects. This is only applies to western medicine, as herbs are widely accepted and used in the traditional medical craft of China. As long as western medicine will scorn herbs as a just another snake oil, people using them will use folk wisdom in choosing the right ingredients for their mix. Mixing of herbs is considered essential as herbalists claim that many herbs have little effect on their own, but combined they're supposedly very potent. For us busy westerners unable to pick our own herbs two forms of preserved herb essences remain, mainly freeze-dried and alcohol based extracts. These two preserving methods are supposed to retain the power of the herbs for long periods. Here's a sampling of some of the most well known brain boosting herbs.

Ginkgo Biloba

The leaf extract from the oldest tree on earth, Ginkgo Biloba is a widely used brain booster. It increases blood circulation in the tiny blood vessels of the brain and effects usually attributed to it include improved memory, reasoning and alertness. Ginkgo extract is also accepted by the medical community in Europe and it is widely prescribed by doctors. In addition to its other properties ginkgo is also an antioxidant and it helps your brain to build its own fuel called ATP. It comes usually in the form of liquid, although powder is also available and should be preferred. The suggested dosage is 120-160 mg of ginkgo extract that contains 24% active ingredients ginkgo flavonoids. The extract should be taken in three divided doses as gingko leaves the body within six hours of ingestion. Extracts are available from health food stores almost everywhere, but the potency may not be that great. The ingredient to keep an eye on when choosing gingko products is gingko flavonoids or gingko heterosides. The more extract has this the better it is. If only low potency extracts are available one should up the dosage even up to 1000 mg. There are no reported side-effects in the medical literature, but some users have complained about stomach troubles at high doses. Effects are usually noticeable after two or three weeks of continued use, although sometimes it may take as long as two months.

Ginseng

Chinese medicine has used ginseng root successfully for 4 000 years and during that time it has had several medical uses. Ginseng has been used to treat fatigue, abnormal blood pressure and quite oddly even insomnia and cancer. It is generally thought of as an all around medicine that has no specific use, so people use it to get various different results. Stress and fatigue relief are among the most commonly give reasons for taking ginseng extract. It works by regulating the blood sugar levels and heart beat, increasing blood flow and metabolism - to name just a few. It is often referred to as the 'wonder drug' due to its multitude of uses. As ginseng has a long tradition of use it is available in several different forms, such as powder, pastes, tablets, ginseng tea and the root itself. Tea and extracts are the best forms, because the active ingredients gets into your blood faster from these forms. Both products have a distinct bitter taste as does the root itself. If you plan to use the root, you're better of chewing than swallowing it, because ginseng is very hard to digest. Dosage is anything from 500 to 4000 mg daily in divided doses according to Smart Drugs and Nutrients. When buying one should look for Korean or Siberian ginseng as these are usually thought to be most potent, whereas American ginseng is least potent. One should start noticing effects after two months of continuous use, although ginseng may have much faster short term effects as well. People with high blood pressure should start at the lower end of the dose spectrum.

Gotu-kola

Another eastern medicine-wonder, gotu-kola is a plant that has been used to improve wound healing and different types of skin conditions. It is also believed to affect brain functioning by reducing stress and anxiety. Gotu-kola has a mild tranquillising effect. Very little scientific studies on this plant exist (unlike with ginseng and gingko biloba, both of which are well researched), but at least one study shows it to improve concentration. It can be bought from health food stores in various forms and a dose of two leaves a day (chewed not swallowed) should give the desired effect. A plant very similar to gotu-kola in its effects and use if fo-ti-tieng, which can be used in place of gotu-kola.

Caffeine

Now would you believe that! Your breakfast is on the menu and it's a smart drug. Well, sort of. Caffeine is used and claimed by many people to be the only thing that gets them going in the morning, thus it is generally considered to improve performance. What is not so often mentioned are the side-effects of caffeine, namely that it makes its users anxious and irritable. Caffeine is also very addictive and should be considered a drug when taken as potent pills. Research on caffeine's benefits is divided: some claim it improves performance while others proclaim it actually decreases performance. What is for sure is that several million people swear by it daily.

If we leave the performance claims aside, the main source of caffeine for most people - coffee - is really a poison: it messes up your digestion, raises cholesterol levels, may cause severe withdrawal symptoms such as migraines and with extensive use can lead to condition not all too different from anxiety neurosis. So drink up your coffee boys and girls, see if I care :)

Getting a life through mail order

Smart drugs and nutrients can either be bought at a health store or from a pharmacy (usually with prescription), but the exact details vary from country to country. It is usually best to go and ask at your local pharmacy first and if you can't find it there then resort to mail order. Mail order is the most common form of obtaining smart drugs if the they are unavailable to you otherwise. There are dozens of places you can order drugs from, but as always there's a catch: depending on your country's legislation you may or may not import the drugs. For instance, in the USA smart drug shipments have been seized by the Federal Drug Administration during the past year and a half. FDA has put several companies under surveillance (the most common smart drug suppliers) and all shipments from those companies will be seized when they cross the border to US. What's even worse, you may not even get a refund for your confiscated goods, although it is possible to ask FDA to return your package to the sender. If the package is returned some suppliers are willing to refund you or try sending the package to an alternative address.

For people living in Europe, Canada, Australia or practically anywhere except probably Singapore, it is quite possible to order smart drugs via mail order. The usual procedure is to send a money order or a cheque to the company you are ordering from along with the order. Then it's about a months wait (sometimes two months) and you can pick the stuff from your local post office or - in best scenario - from your doorstep. It is advisable to check the law on importing prescription drugs for personal use before ordering, even though it has become quite common since experimental AIDS drugs started spreading through mail order. Most companies will fax or mail a list of drugs for sale along with their prices in case you haven't ordered anything previously. This service is free, but sending an international reply coupon along with your query will not hurt your case (IRCs can be bought from the post office).

Where to find more infomation?

If this short introduction wasn't enough for you on smart drugs you can find a wealth of information in a few books and newsletters. I have personally read Brain Boosters, Smart Drugs and Smart Drugs II, all three of which were referred to when writing this article. Of the three books Brain boosters is a better general introduction to the genre, but the smart drugs series offers a better do-it-yourself approach to smart drugs. If you want to learn everything you should consider buying them all and a good book on neurochemistry to accompany their sometimes unscientific claims. The most well known newsletter is Smart Drugs News.

Books

The amino revolution, Robert Erdmann, Meirion Jones, Simon & Schuster, 1989, ISBN: 0-671-67359-9

Brain Boosters: food & drugs that make you smarter, Beverly Potter, Sebastian Orfali, Ronin Pub., 1993, ISBN: 0-914171-65-8

The biochemical basis of neuropharmacology, Jack R. Cooper, Floyd E. Bloom, Robert H. Roth, Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN: 0-19-507118-2

Chinese herbal medicine : formulas & strategies, Dan Bensky, Randall Barolet, Eastland Press, c1990, ISBN: 0-939616-10-6

From chocolate to morphine : everything you need to know about mind-altering drugs, Andrew Weil and Winifred Rosen, Houghton Mifflin, 1993, ISBN: 0-395-66079-3

The healing herbs : the ultimate guide to the curative power of nature's medicines, Michael Castleman, Rodale Press, c1991, ISBN: 0-87857-934-6

How to live longer and feel better, Linus Pauling, W.H. Freeman, c1986, ISBN: 0-7167-1775-1

Hydergine : pharmacologic and clinical facts, Claude Weil, ISBN: 0-387-19282-4

Mega brain power : using mind machines and smart drugs to improve your mind and your life, Hutchison, Michael, Hyperion, c1994, ISBN: 1-56282-770-7

Mind Food and Smart Pills, Ross Pelton, Doubleday, 1989, ISBN: 038526138

Proof of therapeutical effectiveness of nootropic and vasoactive drugs : advances in clinical and experimental nicergoline research, H. Heidrich (ed.), Springer-Verlag, c1986.

The Psychotherapist's Guide to Psychopharmacology, Michael J Gitlin MD, Maxwell Macmillan Int., 1990, ISBN: 002911781X

Smartdrugs & nutrients : how to improve your memory and increase your intelligence using the latest discoveries in neuroscience, Ward Dean, John Morgenthaler, B&J Publications, 1990, ISBN: 0962741892

Smart Drugs II: The Next Generation, Ward Dean, John Morgenthaler, Steven Fowkes, Health Freedom Publications, 1993, ISBN 0-9627418-7-6

Smart nutrients : a guide to nutrients that can prevent and reverse senility, Abram Hoffer, Morton Walker, Avery Pub. Group, c1994, ISBN: 0-89529-562-8

The scientific validation of herbal medicine : how to remedy and prevent disease with herbs, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, Daniel B. Mowrey, Cormorant Books, c1986, ISBN: 0-936261-00-5

The way up from down : a safe new program that relieves low moods and depression with amino acids and vitamin supplement, Priscilla Slagle, Random House, 1987, ISBN: 0-394-55194X

Serials

Biogeron ... life extension manual, Biogeron Laboratories, Inc., ISSN: 1055-5129.

Brain mind bulletin, Interface Press, ISSN: 0273-8546

Life extension report, Saul Kent, ISSN: 0889-9169

Smart drug news : the newsletter of the Cognitive Enhancement Research Institute, The Institute, ISSN: 1060-8427.

(C) 1994, 1995, 1996 Samu Mielonen

Reproduction of this article for non-commercial, non-profit use is granted as long as the Copyright notice and claims for authorship remain as they are. Any other type of reproduction is prohibited, including printing this article in a paper publication or including it on a CD-ROM or other media for which a price is charged. This information is free - keep it that way!
The author cannot be held responsible for any actions prompted by this article. Information is provided as is. If you really want to get to the core of all this conduct your own research and talk to a nutrition specialist with a thorough understanding in brain chemistry.